Incorporating Online Tasks into English Language Learning

To answer the following question after reading Chapter 6 of the required reading:
Drawing on your experience at your university, where do the language learning tasks (ideally that involve IT) fall on the flexibility continuum? Give one or more examples to illustrate. Can tasks that are "liberated" or "free" be easily incorporated into your teaching?

Incorporating Online Tasks into English Language Learning

The China Central Radio & TV University (CCRTVU) organizes 44 provincial RTVUs and up its teaching resources. The idea of founding the RTVUs system comes from the Open University in Britain. Dalian Radio and TV University, which is my work place, is one of the RTVUs.

While making use of television, radio, and computer networks and so on, efforts have been made in other forms of teaching and learning, such as self-study, tutorials, question-and-answers and practice. RTVU runs its school carrying out the policy of "lenient-in and strict-out", running school with multi-levels, multi-functions and multi-forms. It trains qualified personnel with all sorts of patterns.

In my school, the English teaching has been completely student-centered, which means a lot of online tasks are incorporated into the students’ language learning. In the following text, I will take the course English Writing as an example to further illustrate what kinds of online tasks are conducted in my current teaching.

In the current practice of my own work place in China, Dalian Radio and TV University, where most of the students are adult and not necessarily to attend every tutorial, the class attendance rate of the course of English Writing is comparatively lower than the other courses, simply because of the students’ negative attitudes, which quite effectively dampens the teaching enthusiasm on the part of many writing teachers and the learning morale on the part of the few willing and conscientious learners.

It is under such circumstances that the traditional way of testing English Writing is changed through an online assessment system called Electronic Testing and Assessment System (ETAS), mooted by China Central Radio & TV University, with the aim to encourage students to take responsibility for their own writing and to focus on the process and progress rather than on the product or even the grades alone. This system breaks the students’ grade into 70% of process assessment and 30% of final test, the process assessment consisting of 4 parts: self-study report, offline assignment, online quiz and online discussion.

This practice of online assessment is based on the principles of communicative teaching approach and process teaching approach, striving to influence the students on becoming more confident writers, being more conscious of their own writing process and strategies they employ in resolving their writing problems.

The online assessment decomposes the writing process of the whole semester into 8 self-study reports, 4 online quizzes, 4 offline assignments and 8 online discussions, which stretch along the whole semester and make writing a dynamic, flowing process.

The students, who take the module of English Writing as a compulsory course, should enroll the online testing and assessment system first by identifying their matriculation number, and then they are divided into groups according to their user names for online peer assessment. At this starting point, students begin the online assessment.

As aforementioned, students begin to accomplish a set of tasks consist of four main types (namely self-study report, online quiz, offline assignment and online discussion), and the tasks are achieved seriatim with different types taking turns. For every task, there is a time limit of 7 to 10 days, and at this period of time, students are provided enough time for drafting, revising and selecting.

Upon reaching the deadline of each task, the teacher begins revising students’ assignments, marking online quizzes, as well as evaluating their online discussions and self-study reports. After all those laboring, the students can get the feedback via ETAS.

The last step of the assessment is just like the traditional testing, to conduct a real test which requires the students to write a timed composition online. The time slot of the test is notified on the online bulletin board, and the test is conducted at exactly the same time throughout the country, down to the 44 Radio and TV Universities.

Revised WEBOGRAPHY on CAA (7)

Critical Issue: Reporting Assessment Results

http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/assment/as600.htm

(The Webography contains a collection of web sites related to the topic of Computer-Assisted Assessment)

After introducing so many useful Web sites on computer assisted assessment and assessments, this Web site of critical issue: reporting assessment results will mainly give you some assessment tips.

The Web site provides many links of article of some specific issues in the implementing of assessment as well as the research done in the area. For example, the article on "using assessment in school improvement planning". If you want to learn some particular knowledge and pactical issue in the field of assessment, probably the target Web site is a good choice, because it focuses on the 'tips', not abstract theory, not profound knowledge, so that you can solve some problems by surfing the articles.

Moreover, this is a good Web site for educators, as it lists some misunderstandings from people who are doing the research on assessment, and who have been involved in some certain kind of assessment. The reports given on the Web site can be observed with sufficient data, which is of great usefulness to the researchers as well as the educators.

To see is to believe, just visit the site and explore by yourself.

Revised WEBOGRAPHY on CAA (6)

Instructional Assessment System (IAS)

http://www.washington.edu/oea/resources/index.html

(The Webography contains a collection of web sites related to the topic of Computer-Assisted Assessment)

The Web site of Office of Educational Assessment is a Web site to provide services to the students and faculty in the University of Wanshington. It is called Instructional Assessment System, and IAS for short.

If you visit the main page of the Web site, you will find that the structure of the Web site is very clear, with subsections of services, resources and reports as the most important subsections. Of course, the most useful part for teachers and learners is the section of resources, of which there are also 6 categories included: assessment, course evaluation, program evaluation, survey, tests & grading, and teaching. And what I strongly recommend in these categories, and also the most relevant one to my webography, is the categary of assessment.

By simply press the link of the 'assessment', you will find many useful information of the related field, as well as some significant works in the area of assessment. The theme of CAA is thus appears in the Web site, because it helps you to know more about the real assessment going on in a particular university, what are some of the things they've done, and you can just go into it, find a gap, and do your research.

As you go into the subsection of report, you will find the following categories: End-of-Program Assessment, Faculty Surveys, Graduation Rates, Progress and Attrition, Special Programs, Student and Alumni Surveys, Student Writing and Quantitative Skills, Other Topics, and Newest Reports. Just judging from the names of the categories, you can directly get what you want to get.

Revised WEBOGRAPHY on CAA (5)

National Council on Measurement in Education

www.ncme.org

(The Webography contains a collection of web sites related to the topic of Computer-Assisted Assessment)

The Journal of Educational Measurement is a well-known Journal in the field of computer-assisted assessment, and to get access to the publications of the journal, you can go to the Web site of National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME), which is a professional organization for individuals involved in assessment, evaluation, testing, and other aspects of educational measurement.

The Web site is incorporated exclusively for scientific, educational, literary, and charitable purposes. Its advances the science of measurement in the field of education; improves measurement instruments and procedures for their administration, scoring, interpretation, and use; as well as improves applications of measurement in assessment of individuals and evaluations of educational programs.

From NCME, you can learn theory, techniques, and instrumentation of assessments, which are available for measurement of educationally relevant human, institutional, and social characteristics, so it's very helpful for individual researcher to do personal research. Also, as the other few Web site listed in my webography, some useful external links are provided for further study of the related issues.

Revised WEBOGRAPHY on CAA (4)

Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation

http://ericae.net/intbod.stm

(The Webography contains a collection of web sites related to the topic of Computer-Assisted Assessment)

To seek for additional searchable indices, Ericae.net will provide you with valuable information on assessment and evaluation. Moreover, it provides balanced information concerning educational assessment, evaluation and research methodology, resources to encourage the responsible use of educational data, and it also promotes the best resources within the scope.

When you get access on the Web site, you will find a lot of links on the page, and among them, the most important recommendation I make are the links of language assessment, definitions, action research, research support and tests construction. If you press any of the links, you will be impressed by the sufficient information it introduces, and learn a lot from.

Tests online is the sub-section for you to practice computer-assisted assessment. Although the editor claims not confident of the quality of the tests provided in the section, I checked some of them and find that they are particular useful for college teachers and students as well. On the other hand, you can regard this Web site as a pathfinder, because it gives a lot of information of external links related to the topic. To learn to access with the help of computer and online resources, the Web site of Assessment and Evaluation on the Internet is so reader-friendly for you.

Revised WEBOGRAPHY on CAA (3)

National Association of Test Directors (NATD)

www.natd.org

(The Webography contains a collection of web sites related to the topic of Computer-Assisted Assessment)

If you want to get some academic hints on the theme of CAA, then the publications from the Web site of National Association of Test Directors will offer you good examples. It is an association of professionals responsible for assessment programs in public educational settings.

The Web site shares information about testing in educational settings, encourages the appropriate use of testing in educational settings, improves the applications of measurement to students and educational programs, as well as encourages research in the area of elementary and secondary school testing and measurement. Even if you are not a number of the organization, you can still search online fairly good knowledge on academic issues in assessment. NATD provides a forum for test directors to promote best practices in service of learning.

The articles in the sub-section of publication are provided in the format of pdf, so it's convenient for downloading and reading on your own computer or just keeping for later use when you decide to write up something in the field, that's the reason why I invite you to the Web of National Association of Test Directors.

Revised WEBOGRAPHY on CAA (2)

American Evaluation Association

www.eval.org


(The Webography contains a collection of web sites related to the topic of Computer-Assisted Assessment)

Evaluation involves assessing the strengths and weaknesses of programs, policies, personnel, products, and organizations to improve their effectiveness. And sometimes, evaluation could be regarded as a synonym of assessment, so the online materials from American Evaluation Association, which is an international professional association of evaluators, is also related to the theme of CAA.

AEA devoted to the application and exploration of program evaluation, personnel evaluation, technology, and many other forms of evaluation. It provides two most significant sub-sections, which should be paid special attention to, are publications and resources.

In the sub-section of publication, three mainstream magazines are presented online, which are American Journal on Evaluation, Guiding Principles for Evaluator, and Educational Evaluation Standards. A great deal of useful related knowledge could be found from these publications.

And In the sub-section of resources, you can find plenty of online resourses regarding professional groups, collection of links, foundations and discussion lists. Here, you can learn a lot as long as you go deeper into every part of the section to explore.

Revised WEBOGRAPHY on CAA (1)

Indiana University E-portfolio

http://eport.iupui.edu/index.htm

(The Webography contains a collection of web sites related to the topic of Computer-Assisted Assessment)

Some academic Web sites provide additional examples of electronic portfolios, which are purposeful organizations of learner-selected evidence of school and nonschool accomplishments. One of the Web sites is the portfolio page for Indiana University-Purdue University, Indianapolic.

From this Web page, students can log in and revise their portfolios, or visitors may search for a portflio by typing in a student's last name or ID number. As the students have to develop criteria and expertise to evaluate their own works in the portfolio, it has become a more and more popular kind of assessment, especially in writing. So what is the most valuable point for this Web site is the part of "document", in which some useful powerpoints and publications on porfolio assessment are introduced and updated accordingly.

If you are a newcomer or beginner of e-porfolio, I strongly recommend that you visit the Web site of Iniana University E-portfolio, because it's a typical one in related area, and worth learning from. Especially in the part of publication and news, you can get information on the latest development in the field of portfolio assessment as well we other issues.

CALL Terms (3)

Pop-up: a graphic or text in a small window that jumps off the screen to attract attention; often used for advertising.

Server: a computer that links one computer to another.

Snail mail: regular paper mail.

Thread: a common theme/topic in a series of emails of discussion postings.

URL (uniform resource locator): the address for a website or other Internet facility.

Flame(ing): strong, negative, emotional language used in online communication.

Navigate: to find a route through hyperlinks and commands or other online pointers in software or on the Web.

Append: include a previous email attached to the current one.

CALL Terms (2)

CMC (computer-mediated communication): communication between people using computer networks; CMC includes email, chat, instant messaging and discussion lists.

IM (instant messaging): synchronous communication on a network only sent to the specific recipients.

ISP (Internet service provider): a company that provides (for a fee) access to the Internet.

MUD (multi-user dungeon): an interactive virtual game played on the Internet by several people at the same time.

MOO (multi-object-oriented MUDs)

Emoticons (smiley faces): typed symbols used to represent emotions (for example, :>) for a happy face or joke.

Keypal: a penpal, except that the communication is via the Internet, rather than traditional mail.

Netiquette: etiquette on the Internet—that is, rules of behaviour for online communication.

Take Measures to be a Facilitator

After reading "Distractions in the Wireless Classroom" by Michael J. Bugeja, quite a lot of ideas came upon my mind.

In fact, I had experienced such kind of situation in my work place when I taught full-time students, commonly 18-22 years' old. But the situation seldom occured in the classes of adult students, because they had limited learning time as part-time students, and they are more self-disciplined. So my first thought is whom to blame? Is it really the fault of "Technology"? Cellphone, computer, wireless network.... they are born for the convenience of human being and they did make our life easier than ever, but why we human being find so many excuses to refuse our responsibility?

Some suggestions to avoid being distracted:

1. Design more task-based lessons to make sure the students understand the important points of the lesson, thus provide more chances for students to practise what they should do;

2. Assess the tasks effectively, so that the students would be more self-controlled and concentrated on the in-class activities;

3. Be more aware of the students' performances, and take measures to facillitate the students kept on track;

4. Use some kind of control system to supervise the students' access to certain websites with the help of monitoring software.

The population of adopting wireless classes is a key point in the issue, so keep in mind whether the group of students suited for the kind of circumstance or not. Technology itself is good, the person who makes the disposal should be responsible for.

WEBOGRAPHY on CAA (7)

ETS

http://www.ets.org/portal/site/ets/menuitem

(The Webography contains a collection of web sites related to the topic of Computer-Assisted Assessment)

At nonprofit ETS, the mission is to advance quality and equity in education for all people worldwide. Among lots and lots of online assessment websites, only those few are nonprofit websites, which allow every people access to the site, and be knowledgeable. So this is regarded as the most distinctive feature of ETS. Except that, the mission, vision and value of ETS are also very reader-friendly.

The mission of ETS is to advance quality and equity in education by providing fair and valid assessments, research, and related services. Our products and services measure knowledge and skills, promote learning and educational performance, and support education and professional development for all people worldwide.

The vision of ETS is to be recognized as the global leader in providing fair and valid assessments, research, and related products and services to help individuals, parents, teachers, educational institutions, businesses, governments, countries, states, and school districts, as well as measurement specialists and researchers.

The value of ETS is the social responsibility, equity, opportunity, and quality. ETS practice these values by listening to educators, parents and critics.

On ETS, you can find plenty of information on all kinds of testing, such as GRE, TOEFL andAP. You can select different kinds of exam to take part in real-time online testing. What's more, there are also lots of useful resources as links on the page.

WEBOGRAPHY on CAA (6)

CAA Center

http://www.caacentre.ac.uk/

(The Webography contains a collection of web sites related to the topic of Computer-Assisted Assessment)

This site was designed to provide information and guidance on the use of computer-assisted assessment (CAA) in higher education.

Although the site is no longer updated now, the resources of the website are still used as an important link to many website. The most distinctive part of the site is the sub section of outcomes, in which a lot of excellent achievements are listed, such as a national survey, the blueprint, international CAA conference and especially the project report from 1999 to 2001. Those reports can be regarded as the representatives of the CAA research, which makes the website very helpful for researchers on computer-assisted assessment.

The site is grouped into six main sections accessible via the menu on the left. Along the top of each section are links to the sub sections and the site index, which may be accessed from any part of the website. The last sub section of the website, which is the blueprint of computer-assisted assessment, is the most significant of the website. And the resources section provides plentiful external links related to CAA, as well as the answers to frequently asked questions.

WEBOGRAPHY on CAA (5)

MedWeb Computer Assisted Assessment

http://medweb.bham.ac.uk/caa/index.html

(The Webography contains a collection of web sites related to the topic of Computer-Assisted Assessment)

The MedWeb server generates an assessment exercise based upon questions from one of our subject-based MCQ databases, from the short case database or from one of a number of alternative assessment types. You search for questions either using keywords or by selecting a pre-set test.

Much of the assessment material is completely open for non-registered users to try, so why not give it a go! The best part about this system is that you don't have to know anything about HTML or CGIs to submit your own questions. Anyone is welcome to try uploading their own questions so why not try out our system.

MCQs are the most commonly used question type for computer-assisted assessment, the database provided by this website plentiful and useful. This is the special feature of the website, which makes it unique.

WEBOGRAPHY on CAA (4)

Interactions

http://www.warwick.ac.uk/ETS/interactions/vol2no3/index.htm

(The Webography contains a collection of web sites related to the topic of Computer-Assisted Assessment)

Interactions is the termly electronic journal of the Educational Technology Service at the University of Warwick. This web-based publication aims to keep staff informed about teaching and learning technology methods, media, support and innovation going on, particularly at the University of Warwick.

Its objective is to provide a communication mechanism between support services and academics, and between academics keen to improve teaching and learning with new technology. Interactions provides an informal way to test and share ideas between and within departments and regular, up to date information about support services. It hopes to provoke reports about experimental teaching and debate about educational issues, though obviously the Interactions is not an academic journal - the idea is to prompt contact between members of staff from which collaboration can emerge.

The provided website is a specialized volume of the Interactions (Volume 2, No. 3 Autumn term 98/99), and the central topic of the issue is on CAA. It focuses on the experimental aspect of computer-assisted assessment and puts emphasis on a software as a case study in the last part, which makes the website distinctive from the other websites given in the webography.

WEBOGRAPHY on CAA (3)

Resources in Language Testing Page

http://www.le.ac.uk/education/testing/ltr.html

(The Webography contains a collection of web sites related to the topic of Computer-Assisted Assessment)

The Resources in Language Testing Page was first published on 1 May 1995, and the first frames version of the site was launched on 20 July 1996.The present version was released on 26th March 2001, but was substantially upgraded in March and April of 2004 and August 2008. Since 1995 it has been updated regularly at 2 - 4 monthly intervals. Its purpose is to act as a reference guide to language testing related resources on the Internet. At this site you will find all the links which have been collected to date, and each one is reviewed in the Language Tester's Guide to Cyberspace. Instead of randomly visiting sites, you can select those which are most likely to provide the information you are looking for.

There is also the Language Testing Database button, which leads to a searchable index of articles published in the journal Language Testing. The Conference News page was added in 1996, and the Articles and Reviews section in 1997. From 1995 to April 2003 the Resources Page was on the server of the University of Surrey. From April 2003 to March 2006 it was on the server of the University of Dundee. It is now on the server of the School of Education at the University of Leicester.

By getting access to this website, you can explore further by yourself into the field of computer-assisted assessment, because it does provide a lot of valuable external links.

WEBOGRAPHY on CAA (2)

Social Policy and Social Work (SWAP)

http://www.swap.ac.uk/elearning/develop6.asp

(The Webography contains a collection of web sites related to the topic of Computer-Assisted Assessment)

SWAP, the subject centre for social policy and social work, is one of the Higher Education Academy's 24 discipline based subject centers which aim to enhance the student learning experience by promoting high quality learning, teaching and assessment and by supporting social work and social policy educators. There is an e-learning section of the web, in which the provided website gives us sufficient information on computer-assisted assessment.

If the The Handbook just introduces some basic knowledge on CAA, then SWAP gives us more pedagogic principles and support on the relation between CAA and teaching. In the last two parts of the website—the references and resources, as well as the case studies, a number of articles were listed with external links on CAA, which are more rhetorically profound.

Table 1 lists the range of question types that can be used in computer-assisted assessment, which offers a reader-friendly guideline for teachers to take into consideration the possible use of those question types into testing designs in the future. By getting access to the homepage of SWAP, more links were supported in the section of e-learning, which can better blueprint the background information of computer-assisted language teaching and learning.

WEBOGRAPHY on CAA (1)

The Handbook for Economics Lecturers

http://www.economicsnetwork.ac.uk/handbook/caa/

(The Webography contains a collection of web sites related to the topic of Computer-Assisted Assessment)

The homepage of The Handbook is Economicsnetwork, one of the world's leading economics education sites, with nearly 4000 documents downloaded by human users each day. And for the provided website, actually, it's a handbood of Computer-Assisted Assessment from Douglas Chalmers (Glasgow Caledonian Universityand) and Dr W. David McCausland (University of Aberdeen) which is published in September, 2002.

The handbook introduces the basic knowledge on CAA and the related research field with examples and case study. It's a valuable website for the beginners of CAA to get started in terms of theoretical background and practical application of the target area. What's more, it considerately brings in the useful links and available softwares of CAA, as well as the contexts and environments of the implementation of computer-assisted assessment.

Part 3, the case study of Macroeconomics at the University of Aberdeen is a very detailed implementation of CAA, which effectively makes the readers understand the exact standpoint and practice of how to adopt computer-assisted assessment. Therefore, it's the most interesting and useful part recommended by the head of the webography.

WEBOGRAPHY on CAA--An Introduction

What is CAA?

CAA is a common term for the use of computers in the assessment of student learning. The term encompasses the use of computers to deliver, mark and analyze assignments or examinations. It also includes the collation and analysis of optically captured data gathered from machines such as optical mark readers (OMR). An additional term is ‘computer-based assessment' (CBA), which refers to an assessment in which the questions or tasks are delivered to a student via a computer terminal. Other terms used to describe CAA activities include computer-based testing, computer-erised assessment, computer-aided assessment and web-based assessment (where browsers are used to deliver tests). The term ‘screen-based assessment encompasses both web-based and computer-based assessment.

Why CAA?

Advantages of CAA

There are many motivations for implementing CAA within a course and it is often a combination of factors which results in CAA being used either formatively or summatively with students. When considering CAA, it is useful to look at the types of assessment which are currently being used and evaluate whether they are effective in assessing relevant disciplinary skills and abilities. No single assessment method is able to evaluate all the skills and abilities which students are expected to develop in their courses; therefore, in order to maintain a balanced assessment profile, CAA objective tests should be used as only one of a number of assessment methods.

The following are some reasons for using CAA:

1. to increase the frequency of assessment, thereby:
¨ motivating students to learn
¨ encouraging students to practise skills
2. to broaden the range of knowledge assessed
3. to increase feedback to students and lecturers
4. to extend the range of assessment methods
5. to increase objectivity and consistency
6. to decrease marking loads
7. to aid administrative efficiency

(Bull J. & Mckenna C. Blueprint for Computer-Assisted Assessment. London: RoutledgeFalmer. 2004)

Practical considerations of CAA

1. Many examinations in China are turning to the point of being computer-assisted, including TOFEL and CET.

2. And the university of the head of this blog is also trying to apply some forms of computer-assisted assessment, in terms of both web-based and offline assessments.

3. The aim of the module of building up a webography into the blog should be accomplished with a relevant topic related to IT.

IT Educational Policy in USA

IT Educational Policy in USA

Group Division:

Liu Dongping on values given to education and IT;
Xiao Yun on roles of teachers;
Wang Xinjun on roles of students;
Yang Rong on roles of language and language learning.
(Although we assigned the tasks separately, we discussed the task for several times and finally made it a whole.)

Primary Source 1:

From http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/itsv/1297/ijse/ijse1297.htm

(This is from an e-journal article in US Society & Values. The editors comment on President Bill Clinton’s speech to illustrate the values given to American education.)

Values given to education

The American system of education, like the society that shapes it, is facing myriad challenges and opportunities. What is the role of technology in the classroom? Is there a place for voucher-funded schools? Can national standards and testing be mandated for schools which are locally controlled? At a time when education is of increasing importance, where does society find the resources to fund this expanding need?
At the same time it is facing these questions, the U.S. system of education remains committed to universal access to education for all its students. It also has long contributed to its citizens' economic upward mobility and exerted a powerful democratizing influence. Despite the challenges facing American education, and the continuing debate among politicians, educators, parents and students, there is a national consensus that high quality education must be accessible to all.

Primary Source 2:

From http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2004/2004011.pdf

(Since 1994, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) has surveyed public schools to estimate access to information technology in schools and classrooms. In the fall of each academic year, a new nationally representative sample of public schools is surveyed about Internet access and other Internet-related topics. The results of this survey show what progress has been made since these data were first collected in 1994, and help assess the magnitude of tasks remaining to make the Internet available as an educational tool in all schools. A report presents key findings from the survey “Internet Access in U.S. Public Schools, Fall 2002.” by NCES shows the following :)

Values given to IT

In fall 2002, 99 percent of public schools in the United States had access to the Internet.
When NCES first started estimating Internet access in schools in 1994, 35 percent of public schools had access (table 1). In 2002, no differences in school Internet access were observed by any school characteristics. This is consistent with data reported previously (Kleiner and Farris 2002), which showed that there have been virtually no differences in school access to the Internet by school characteristics since 1999.

Roles of students in computer access

More children and adolescents in the nation used computers at school than at home in 2001
(DeBell and Chapman 2003). The survey “Internet Access in U.S. Public Schools, Fall 2002” obtained information on various measures of student access to computers at school, such as the ratio of students to instructional computers with Internet access, student access to the Internet outside of regular school hours, the provision of hand-held computers to students and teachers, and laptop loans to students.

Roles of teachers in professional development on how to integrate the use of the internet into the curriculum


Although approximately one-half of public school teachers in 1999 reported that they used computers or the Internet for instruction during class time, and/or that they assigned their students work that involves research using the Internet, one-third of teachers reported feeling well or very well prepared

Nationwide, 87 percent of public schools with Internet access indicated that their school or school district had offered professional development to teachers in their school on how to integrate the use of the Internet into the curriculum in the 12 months prior to the fall 2002 survey.

Forty-two percent of the schools that had professional development had 1 to 25 percent of their teachers attending professional development in 12 months preceding the survey. Seventeen percent of the schools had 26 to 50 percent of their teachers, 11 percent of the schools had 51 to 75 percent of their teachers, and 30 percent of the schools had 76 percent or more of their teachers attending professional development on how to integrate the use of the Internet into the curriculum in the 12 months preceding the survey (table 20). Another 1 percent reported not having any teachers attending such professional development during this time frame.

Roles of language and language learning

Primary Source 3

From http://esperanto-usa.org/node/649?PHPSESSID=bceec4ac119f9cd4091c2e3e93e86908

(A blog of Esperanto-USA)

Learning languages in the United States is something to which we all give lip-service, but which in fact is heavily ignored in our schools, and it seems to me that anything that can help should be at least looked at.

Primary Source 4:

From http://www.usatoday.com/news/education/2007-01-09-language-children_x.htm

(By Beth Walton, USA TODAY. More children learn more than one language)

Not only is learning a foreign language easier for children than it is for adults, but children who are exposed to other languages also do better in school, score higher on standardized tests, are better problem solvers and are more open to diversity.

CALL Terms (1)

Access: Ability to enter data into or retrieve data from a computer's memory or to use certain programs. Users often need an account number and a password to gain access to a system.

Account: A portion of time-sharing computer memory reserved for the storage of programs and data by a certain user.

Artificial intelligence (AI): The branch of computer science concerned with the development of computer hardware and software that simulates human mental processes such as reasoning or learning from experience or by trial and error.

Authoring language: A programming language, such as PILOT, that is specifically designed for creating courseware.

Authoring system: A type of software that allows the user, without a knowledge of programming, to create courseware by responding to a series of prompting questions.

CAI: Computer-assisted instruction.

CALL: Computer-assisted language learning

CBI: Computer-based instruction.

We are at the Stage of Learner-centered Language Teaching

“Changes in language teaching methods throughout history have reflected recognition of changes in the kind of proficiency learners need, such as the move towards oral proficiency than reading comprehension as the goal of language study; they have also reflected the changes in theories of the nature of language and language learning” (Richards & Rogers 1991).

The Development of Language Teaching Methods

Pre-1960s
Grammar Translation Translation from L1 to L2 (see Kelly, 1969)
1961
Audiolingualism Behaviorism: stimulus-response-reinforcement. Emphasis on habit Formation and repetitive drills. (see Skinner, 1957)
1971
Communicative Language Teaching Developing communicative competency. Utilizes discrete items. (see Wilkin, 1976)
1977
TPR (Total Physical Respense) Functional and translational situation (see Asher, 1977)
Post-1978
Nature Approach Learning versus acquisition (see Krashen & Terrell, 1983)
Nowadays
Learner-centered Method Needs analysis. Different learning styles considered. Balance between form and function. (see Nunan, 1992)

The Role of the Computer in Learning

The computer is a tool, of itself incapable of action. It has no inborn wisdom, no mind of its own, no initiative, and no inherent ability to learn or teach. It will perform, with remarkable speed, exactly the instructions given to it by a human user. These instructions can be typed into the computer from a keyboard, or can be assenbled in computer programs, wich consist of series of instructions for the computer to execute. The computer is a servant. Its role in education is that of a medium. Far from threatening the teacher's position, it is totally dependent on the teacher in many ways.

An Overview of Computer Use in L2 Learning

Early CALL

Developed in the mid 1940s from earlier work in the 1930s and early 1940s, large mainframe computers were used during World War II for missile guidance and cryptography and were thus involved with language processes from the very start. Mechanical translations appeared in the 1940s as a spin-off from cryptography but proved to be inadequate; as a result, U.S. government funding for computer research initially decreased after the war (Last, 1992). However, because of the improved systems and programming languages that were developed throughout the 1950s, by the 1960s linguists were using computers to create concordances for text analysis. The first electronic corpus, the Brown Corpus of Standard American English was developed during this period. It consisted of about 1 million words, the minimum number required to provide stable word-frequency list.
Until the invention of microcomputers language learners had to work noninteractively with mainframe computers by punching their data on cards, running the program, then waiting for the results. Despite these limitations, simple CALL programs for drill and testing appeared as early as the 1950s, and a number of pioneer CALL projects existed by the 1960s (see Chapelle, 2001; Levy, 1977, for descriptions). Early programs required the learner to choose one of two answers and the score was presented after the data had been processed. This linear type of program was the first generation of CALL software, and both researchers and educators acknowledged its limitations. The challenge was to create a learner interface that presented the computer as an interactive tutor evaluating the student and providing subsequent activities, a model characterizing CALL from its inception (Kern & Warschauer, 2000; Levy, 1997; Taylor, 1980).

Behavioristic CALL

This first phase of CALL has been termed behavioristic CALL (Kern & Warschauer, 2000; Warschauer, 1996a). It dominated the 1960s and 1970s and replicated the teaching techniques of structural linguistics and the audio-lingual method, a behaviorist model of language learning based on habit formation (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). Emulating techniques used in language laboratories at the time, CALL consisted mainly of drill-and-practice programs and was regarded as a supplement to classroom instruction rather than its replacement. However, it should be noted that even today numerous drill programs still exist for vocabulary study and grammar practice because repeated exposure to such material has been shown to promote its acquisition, and the computer provides both immediate feedback and presents material at the learner’s pace, thereby encouraging learner autonomy (Chapelle, 2001; Ellis, 2002; Fotos, 2001; Healy, 1999).

Communicative CALL

By the end of the 1970s, however, behaviorist approaches to language learning were challenged by communicative approaches based on meaning-focused language use rather than formal instruction (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). The emergence of increasingly powerful microcomputers in the 1980s presented a greater range of possibilities for learner interaction, and pioneer books on CALL methodology, such as Higgins and Johns’ influential Computer in Language Learning (1984), Underwood’s seminal Linguistics, Computer and the Language Teacher (1984), and Ahmad, Greville, Rogers, and Sussex’s Computers, Language Learning and Language Teaching (1985) began to appear. This period also witnessed the establishment of key professional organization such as the Computer Assisted Language Instruction Consortium (CALICO) in the United States and the European Association for Computer Assisted Language Learning (EuroCALL) in Europe, and publication of their journals, CALICO Journal and ReCALL. In addition, language teachers themselves began to write language-learning software using programs such as Hypercard, which were based on a nonlinear concept of interactivity—one of the key concepts driving the subsequent development of the Internet (Levy, 1997). This next generation of CALL software was characterized as communicative CALL (Kern & Warschauer, 2000; Underwood, 1984; Warschauer, 1996a) because it emphasized communicative use of the language rather than mastery of isolated forms. Programs consisted of language games, reading and writing practice, text reconstruction, cloze tests, and puzzles. However, once again the prevailing model was the computer as tutor for the students, a “teacher in the machine” (Levy, 1997), and some researchers evaluating CALL questioned whether this technology was truly compatible with communicative methodology (see Dunkel, 1991; Underwood, 1984).
In reaction to criticisms that CALL was limited to mechanistic drills and lacked the ability to give learners essential feedback, the early 1990s was characterized by a different model, the computer as stimulus (Kern & Warschauer, 2000; Warschauer, 1996a). Here, software followed a cognitive model of language learning that aimed to stimulate students’ motivation, critical thinking, creativity, and analytical skills rather than merely the achievement of a correct answer or the passive comprehension of meaning. A related learning model was the use of the computer as a tool providing the means for students to become active learners (Levy, 1997; Taylor, 1980). Software in the category, such as word processors, spelling and grammar checkers, desktop publishing programs, and concordancers, did not supply language-learning activities but facilitated the students’ understanding and manipulation of the target language (Warschauer, 1996a).

Integrative CALL

The present stage of CALL, integrative CALL, arose in the mid 1990s and has been made possible by the development of powerful desktop computers that support rapid use of the Internet, local area networks (LANs), multimedia, and linked resources known as hypermedia (Warschauer, 1996a). Currently, a typical multimedia language program might allow students to do a reading assignment in the target language, use a dictionary, study grammar and pronunciation related to the reading, perhaps access support materials and translations in the students’ first language (L1), view a movie of the reading, and take a comprehension test on the reading content, receiving immediate feedback, all within the same program. This is a highly interactive and individualized approach, with the main focus on content supported by modules instructing learners on specific skills (Kern & Warschauer, 2000).
Much of the theory underlying integrative CALL is derived from the Vygotskyan sociocultural model of language learning (Wertsch, 1985) in which interaction is regarded as essential for the creation of meaning. Thus, person-to-person interaction is a conspicuous feature of many current CALL activities. The rise of LANs to teach writing interactively and e-mail exchange programs among students, classes, and institutions are examples of interactive language learning activities, as are multiplayer role-playing games and interactive online real-time learning situations such as MOOs (Multiple-user-domain object oriented) and simulation games played by different users. The rise of the Internet has promoted the use of CALL for information retrieval, creating the concept of computer literacy, a term referring to the development of skills for data retrieval, critical interpretation, and participation in online discourse communities (see Felix, 1999, 2002; Hawisher & Self, 2000; Murray, 2000; Warschauer, 1999). Learner autonomy—the influential concept from general education suggesting that students learn better when they discover things through their own efforts rather than when they receive knowledge passively through instruction—is an important goal of the current view of CALL (Healy, 1999).
A second feature of integrative CALL is the movement away from language-learning software and CD-ROMs to Web-based activities that allow learners flexible, self-paced access to information (Felix, 1998, 1999, 2000; Lin & Hsieh, 2001; Schcolnik, 2002; Warschauer, 1999). Thus, both teachers and students increasingly view computers and CALL as means to an end—the end being authentic, Web-based communication for meaningful purpose—rather than merely as a tool for language learning.
Regarding the future of CALL and the direction of educational technology in general, the point has been made repeatedly that no one knew what a powerful communication tool the telephone would eventually become, how the car would transform transportation, or how important television would become as a global medium. On the same way, from our current vantage point at the start of the computer era, it is impossible to visualize the changes that will occur as a result of its future development. Some researchers caution against the destruction of human relationships and the fragmentation of human society as a result of computer-mediated communication (CMC) preempting face-to-face interaction, warning that “improved tools are still projecting an unimproved and thoroughly unrevolutionary agenda” (Brown, 1997, P. 245). Other researchers (e.g., Ogden, 1995; Warschauer, 1999) predict that we are heading toward a world without borders, with the rise of knowledge brokers and information literates as the new aristocracy and power elite. However, still others caution that the expensive technology and infrastructure required for online activities tend to privilege the culture and educational pedagogies of the advanced nations, creating a hegemonic “digital divide” between technological haves and have-nots (e.g. Crystal, 2001; Hawisher & Self, 2000; Hoffman & Novak, 2001; Murray, 2000; Warschauer, 2003). However, Murray (2000) observed that the new communication technologies such as video conferencing and e-mail have not yet replaced the old forms such phone calls and letters, but rather complement them, so the direction of the relationship between language learning and technology is still unclear. Nonetheless, most researchers agree that a major shift is taking place (see discussions in Crystal, 2001; Murray, 2000; Warschauer, 2003)—a shift in the use of general technology and a shift in education away from the teacher-centered classroom toward a learner-centered system where the learner is in control of the lesson content and the learning process. CALL has historically been rooted in educational technology, and findings from the general field of education will continue to be influential in determining its future directions.

(from Sandra Fotos & Charles Brown. New Perspectives on CALL for Second Language Classrooms. Mahwha, NJ, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Incorporated, 2004. P 3.)

Comparison between the Description of Bill Gates and My Own Teaching Circumstance:

Similarities

1. The networks enable students and teachers to communicate in a more convenient way.
2. The boundary of classrooms and outside world is blurred, and the interactive learning provides the students with a wealth of information.
3. The classrooms are equipped with the digital white board as well as projectors.
4. Multimedia is used in language teaching, for example, CAI, self-made Video, and so on.

Differences

The Road Ahead

1. The cooperation will become widespread as teachers get better communication channels with other teachers.
2. Teachers will probably spend more time with small groups of students working together using a personal computer.
3. The computer controlling the white board will recognize your handwriting and will convert it into a more readable typeface.
4. The ability of students to create presentations with multimedia content will increase.

Local Circumstances

1. The information exchange between teachers is still in a traditional way, with every teacher’s own resources relatively confidential.
2. Because of the limited resources, students still have to be in a large cluster, even in the online discussion class.
3. The computers do not have the software of handwriting-recognition, so teachers usually prepared the documents for their presentation before classes.
4. Students ability of applying multimedia remains unchanged.

Possibilities

1. Teachers will communicate more often than before to form virtue teams with the help of networks and exchange information of each other.
2. Students will be divided into small groups to enjoy benefits from e-learning.
3. Students’ ability of applying IT will increase.